In Is Your Work Worth It? Christopher Wong Michaelson and Jennifer Tosti-Kharas address the question of what makes work worthwhile, rather than specifically meaningful – meaningful work being the subject of their book in this area (The Meaning and Purpose of Work). Naturally, the meaningfulness or otherwise of work is considered in this volume, but it is important to realise that the focus of this work is different and it is not simply a more ‘popular’ version of their more academic book. It is not only the focus of this book that differs; the volume is aimed at a much broader, non-academic readership and as such, the approach taken is significantly different, too. The book covers a good deal of content in a relatively short space, which makes a detailed summary of each chapter impossible in a review. Therefore, the focus here will be on particular chapters and the purpose of the book as a whole.

The first chapter defines work as ‘purposeful, effortful, and recognized by society as work’ (page 26) – which means that it often merits pay – and then proceeds to consider the nuances of each element of the definition, adding that often, what we consider to be some of the most important work of all is either not well-remunerated or is completely unpaid. The second chapter offers an interesting examination of the reasons for which we work, whether for intrinsic rewards such as fulfilment, or for money (perhaps to support a family or to fund some fulfilling endeavour outside our working lives). At one point, it is suggested that perhaps we ought to consider not whether we are making enough to realise our projected ends, but whether those ends we are working towards are worth the work that we are doing (page 48). The authors introduce the three-orientations to work – job, career and calling – and it is here that the idea of meaning first enters the discussion. However, the notion of meaning is not defined clearly and there seems to be some slippage in the discussion between work being worthwhile and work being meaningful, though the two are of course connected (and may indeed be inseparable). What seems to emerge is that whether work is worthwhile or meaningful turns on the role that work plays in within a person’s life ‘as a whole’ (page 44). Once work has a significant role to play in a person’s life, whether for its own sake or because of what it enables, it becomes worthwhile and (perhaps indirectly) meaningful. It follows that any number of reasons given for working can make work meaningful and there is an endless variety of worthwhile values that motivate working. With this in mind, the authors advise against a hierarchical attitude to the different orientations to work by which we might always privilege the idea of work as a calling, just because it carries with it the idea of fulfilment or meaning for the worker. Moreover, we need to look beyond the perspective of the individual who works: while the individual might find his job mundane and unfulfilling, those who depend on him might see matters rather differently. Perhaps what matters, therefore, is not some deeply meaningful vocation, but the questions raised by our reasons for working and who it is that we work for.

Subsequent chapters consider the questions of how much we work and for how long, address the notion of worth and the idea of work as a calling, and examine the conception of ‘necessary’ or essential work. Frequently raised are the discrepancies that exist between different types of work, with work that we recognise as essential often being the least flexible and the least well paid. Readers are invited, therefore, to consider the conflation of ‘worth’ with ‘monetary value’ and to ask what might change in our working culture – as a society or in our organisations – so that we see our work as ‘worth doing’, rather than longing for (a time when we do) no work at all. With regard to the notion of calling, the authors offer a series of questions that demonstrate the need to take a longer-term, balanced view of work and its worth, and to think about ways of rendering the present more ideal instead of romanticising the future. Similarly, Chapter 7, in its engagement with the idea of purpose, poses a set of questions aimed at determining the individual’s conception of purpose at work. Interestingly, what emerges – apart from the fact that it is not easy to respond to all of them with clarity – is that one can rarely ‘have it all’ when it comes to finding purposeful work, as is demonstrated by a series of short case studies that close the chapter. The two final chapters examine the idea of leaving a legacy and explore the absence of work, asking what we are to do – both as individuals and a society – in a world without work.

The book’s titular question: Is Your Work Worth It? appears to invite the flippant response: ‘Yes, otherwise I wouldn’t do it!’ However, such a reply overlooks the point of the book, which is to consider the question: Why (or perhaps: Why not)? As the authors frequently acknowledge, to be able to reflect on this question is in itself something of a luxury. Many people work to make ends meet and cannot afford not to do what they do. The authors recognise this fully and state very directly that the obligation to meet basic needs and support others is one (perfectly decent) reason among others to work – one which can and does make work both meaningful and worthwhile, even if we don’t find the work itself personally fulfilling. What the book asks us to consider is how this kind of value measures against others and what it is that we want from our work.

In this respect, it is successful. With its clear prose and rich examples, it is a starting point for reflection rather than a book that develops particular concepts in depth. Through stories and illustrations, it raises questions about a particular notion connected with work and worth, considers difficulties or different approaches to that idea, and so leaves the reader to think about the issue for him or herself. For example, in the chapter on purpose, the authors do not assert that this is purposeful work, or list careers that can rightly be considered purposeful. Instead, they talk about purpose in broad terms and different ways in which one might set about establishing or discovering purpose in work oneself. In consequence, those looking for a single line of argument or a particular narrative throughout the book will be disappointed – but that is not the authors’ purpose. As they state in the introduction, their aim is not to tell readers what work to do, but to encourage them to do work that is ‘worth it’, whatever that may be: ‘It is about the priority of work worth doing in a life worth living’ (page 13).

At times, it is not entirely clear what the relevance of some discussions is, or why the authors are raising a particular question or presenting an example. In many chapters, the reader is presented with direct questions aimed at facilitating personal reflection on the issues raised. These help to indicate the significance of what is being discussed, whether to the chapter more broadly or the book’s overall concern, and more reminders of this kind would have been welcome. Nevertheless, there are connections between chapters and the book rewards sustained reading – perhaps slowly and more than once. That is not to say that it is hard to follow: it is in fact eminently readable. Revisiting the book, however, or specific chapters of interest, should enable the reader to identify these connections more clearly (for instance between the chapters on loving one’s work and on purpose) and so deepen his or her thinking on a given question or theme.

In the introductory chapter, the authors suggest that the book is for anyone who works, at any point in his or her career, or anyone facing work, a career transition or retirement. It considers the sacrifices that work requires of us and why we make them – what it is that makes work as part of our lives worthwhile. In this, they are surely right. While the book does not provide answers, it offers plenty of material for reflection and is to be recommended as a starting point for anyone who ever thinks about the point of their work, or what it is that makes it worth doing.

‘Is Your Work Worth It? How to Think About Meaningful Work’ by Christopher Wong Michaelson and Jennifer Tosti-Kharas was published in 2024 by Public Affairs (ISBN: 978-1-541-70340-7). 304pp.

 

Neil Jordan is Senior Editor at the Centre for Enterprise, Markets and Ethics. For more information about Neil please click here.

 

 

 

 

This book provides the results of research that was conducted by three academics who wanted to better understand the impact of allowing employees to demonstrate their religion in the workplace; the authors refer to this as workers bringing their whole selves into the workplace. The research questions were on how and when faith and religion are demonstrated in the workplace, what the positive and negative outcomes are of these demonstrations, and what type of professions or workplace environments are most tolerant to those who have a desire to be all of who they are in the workplace. Over 13,000 people in the U.S. completed the survey over a three-year time period; the survey respondents were from many different religious groups, including Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, and Jews, in addition to those who identified themselves as having no faith at all. Overall, the authors were attempting to identify what the potential results are for organizations and the individual employees if the employees are allowed to be fully authentic at the workplace. The references used as a foundation for this study indicate that employees are ‘more committed, motivated and act in ways that support the organization’ (page 10) when they bring all of themselves to the workplace, and the first chapter explains why this research is necessary.

There are ten chapters in the book, eight of which discuss the different results of the research. Each chapter begins with a mini-story from one of the survey participants and then the authors proceed to further explain the point made in the anecdote with the results of the questions that were asked in the multi-question survey. There is at least one table or figure in each chapter demonstrating the results, cross-tabulated with different demographic characteristics; these are very helpful for gaining a better understanding of the differences between the different workplace and personal characteristics. Every chapter ends with a section called The Bottom Line, which provides a quick summary of the main points made in the chapter. Each chapter also has many references to other research that relates to the topic being discussed (the full reference list fills six and half pages) and there are many notes that add to the discussion of the chapter. There are five appendices at the end of the book that explain the research methodology and provide the questionnaire that was used to gather the data.

Chapter 1 introduces how the book is structured and the point of the research. Chapter 2 adds a further foundation to the purpose of the research by identifying the fears that leaders may have when allowing faith practices and religious talk in the workplace. Three different fears are identified. These include the possible marginalization of some of the workers when religious faith is expressed, the conflict that could occur between workers having different faith perspectives, and the potential emotional separation workers may feel when not being allowed to fully be themselves in the workplace.

Chapter 3 identifies all the different ways that faith is expressed at work. This discussion includes the impact that different factors, such as position in the organization, size of the organization, culture of the organization, and individual characteristics have on the ways in which workers express their faith and their confidence in doing so. Chapter 4 addresses an interesting question of workers viewing themselves as having a spiritual calling for the work they are doing. This aspect was studied because other research indicated that ‘having a sense of calling was correlated with better coping with work problems, as well as overall lower stress and depression rates’ (page 43) and so many different aspects of calling are discussed in this chapter. Chapter 5 takes this discussion a step further and identifies how allowing religion in the workplace can bring meaning and purpose to a worker’s job tasks and work environment.

Chapter 6 discusses the relationship between faith and different aspects of ethical behaviour, such as questioning authority, advocating for self and others, and making change within the organization. The authors provide many interesting individual anecdotes and statistics related to ethical behvaviours demonstrated by different professions and types of organizations. Chapters 7 and 8 begin the discussion of religious discrimination and harassment, and the realistic accommodations that need to be present if religious expression is encouraged in the workplace. The authors identify the factors affecting where and when discrimination and harassment are more likely to occur; these include where in the country these workers live and work, whether the religious group is a minority within the workplace, whether there is a particular societal perception of a religious group (the authors speak about the challenge Muslims have within the U.S. since 9/11), and the leader’s perception of and experience with different religions. The authors also challenge their own research results in relation to the question of whether religion is the factor that is causing discrimination and harassment; they wonder if the cause is another demographic factor such as gender or ethnicity. The discussion on accommodation includes the influence of the human rights legislation in the U.S. and how this might impact the actions and reactions in the workplace.

Chapter 9 brings one further point to the discussion on accommodating faith in the work environment. This chapter discusses the addition of family into the equation of whether employees feel comfortable and supported in bringing all of themselves to the workplace. One interesting demographic factor noted was that employees who are more religious are more likely to be married and have children. Due to this factor, this group identified more work-life balance issues. Also, the authors discovered that in those who identified themselves as religious, there was a significant difference between the percentage of men and women in the workplace, with women participating less than men. There was also much more gender traditionalism demonstrated among these workers.

The last chapter provides a good summary of what organizations and leaders should do if they want their workers to bring their whole selves to work. The authors identify, once again, the benefits of workers having the freedom to express their faith in the workplace. They also, though, acknowledge some of the challenges that organizations may experience when allowing faith in the workplace, and provide a brief description of six things an organization can do to reduce the downsides of creating a faith-tolerant workplace.

This would be a very interesting book for someone working in an HR department to read, as they could refer to the research when recommending certain policies and procedures or proposing a shift in the organization’s work culture. This book is also a great reference for any academic studying or teaching in the social sciences or business fields. The empirical research is solid and provides much evidence for recommending freedom of faith within the workplace. The main challenge I see with this book, however, is that all the data was gathered from those working in the U.S. and thus the conclusions and recommendations may only be applicable to organizations in the U.S. The objective of the research study was to understand the benefits of allowing religion to be demonstrated in the workplace, so if this study was replicated in Europe, Asia, or Africa the results could benefit organizations that operate within a global environment.

‘Religion in a Changing Workplace’ by Elaine Howard Ecklund, Denise Daniels, and Christopher P. Scheitle was published in 2024 by Oxford University Press (ISBN: 978-0-19-767501-4). 201pp.

Andrea Soberg is a retired professor of human resource management from Trinity Western University in Canada. She continues to be active within the global academic and business community by researching, writing, and assisting organizations that have a focus on business as mission.

As the authors of The Meaning and Purpose of Work point out, most of us will probably spend more of our lives working than doing anything else, such that work has the potential to be our most meaningful contribution to the world, but also that which causes us the greatest misery. The book is shaped around the idea that work occurs at three levels: individual, organisational and systemic, and throughout, the authors return to the trade-off between the personal rewards of work, whether extrinsic (such as remuneration) or intrinsic (such as a feeling of fulfilment), and its societal worth (as with work that serves others). All of these are significant determinants of meaning and as such, the main focus of the book – emphasised at the very end – is on why we work, this being the question that must inform other, more pragmatic questions about what to do, where or for what duration.

The introduction raises the question of meaning in work, particularly when tragedies or crises provoke periods of reflection. The first chapter then proceeds to explore ‘a multiplicity of ways in which work can give life meaning and purpose – and a multiplicity of ways in which it can take it away’ (page 7). Here, the authors outline concepts such as ‘market fit’ in relation to meaning, whereby ‘meaning and purpose can emerge from the abstract machinations of the marketplace … in the form of finding real alignment between what the market needs and wants and what we are uniquely fit to supply’ (page 8). They also discuss the importance of self-realisation (or personal fulfilment), service to others (including supporting one’s family), and community (or those with whom we work) if work is to have meaning.  

Chapter 2 unpacks fundamental concepts such as work, meaningfulness and purpose and suggests that while our personal perspectives are important when it comes to judging work meaningful, tied as such judgements are to our systems of value, they are not simply statements of preference but are in fact prescriptive – which raises the possibility of our being wrong, for instance if our priorities are mistaken or we are confused about what matters to us. Much therefore depends on our theory of what constitutes meaning(fulness).

Chapters 3 and 4 examine factors that can influence the meaningfulness of work, focusing primarily on the importance of individual perspective and ‘work orientation’. With regard to the latter, whether one sees one’s work as a job, career or calling can have a fundamental impact on levels of satisfaction, fulfilment and identification with one’s work. While the authors recognise that ‘job-crafting’ and changing one’s orientation to work is not a means by which anyone can suddenly transform a tedious job into a rewarding career, their observations highlight the importance of ‘meaning-making’, whilst also acknowledging the fact that the perspectives of others (rather than simply that of the worker) matter, and that the nature of the work itself is often central: ‘Notwithstanding this implication that meaning and purpose are to be found in the worker … it is difficult to deny that there are some features in the world around work that make some work more conducive to cultivating meaning and purpose than others’ (page 60).

Chapter 5 looks at meaningful work in organisations, considering reasons for the shift towards stakeholder value perspectives and the proliferation of company statements of purpose. Comparing work in one of the Big Four accounting firms to that of a small, worker-owned company, the authors recognise that many people (themselves included, previously) do find meaning and value working for large firms, under pressure to produce results. They also acknowledge that large organisations can achieve purposes that matter to individuals who work for them and that what matters when it comes to any stated company purpose is sincerity: ‘ … the organizations in which we often work can fulfill those inspiring purposes, from serving society’s needs to making the world a better place. They can do so at a scale that we could not achieve as individuals, harnessing collective power that enables us to connect our personal meaning and talent to a larger purpose …  economic sense and moral sentiments can align together to build organizations that are monetarily successful and provide work that is meaningful to their employees’ (page 81). While organisations can strip the meaning from work and leave employees feeling under-valued in repetitive, tedious work, they can also create communities and serve valuable purposes. As ever, much depends on the values of the individual, but in organisations, a good deal is down to the approach of the leaders.

Chapter 6 raises the question of how market and state value and put a price on work (and life) according to its ‘market fit’ or societal benefit. There is rather less in the way of conceptual discussion in this chapter and while the reader can extract from the detailed case studies the tension between personal and societal values that confer meaning on work, a closer, more guided discussion of the ways in which our socio-economic system can assign meaning (or otherwise) would have been welcome.

The final chapter considers the future of work and the issues that are likely to arise as work changes, recapitulates earlier material and reinforces the book’s organisation around the three levels of work, offering a series of terms that express functional and moral practices or motivations connected with work at each level.

While brief, The Meaning and Purpose of Work covers a good deal of ground and in returning to certain themes constantly, maintains coherence. Some readers might wonder why, in a book dealing with meaningful work, there is little discussion of the specific rewards and challenges of self-employment, and the acquisition of professional skills seems to receive no attention. However, it is likely that these subjects – and others – could be addressed by the conceptual resources provided, possibly in terms of personal fulfilment or self-realisation. Perhaps more of a challenge is the importance of human dignity as a feature of work. While the authors do hint at this in places with terms such as ‘noble’ and considerations of the importance of ‘feeling valued’, this fundamental value connected with work – one likely to shape many conceptions of its meaning – is not discussed directly at all. While the foundations for a discussion of dignity may well be present, if the concept cannot be reduced to some other notion delineated in the book, such as ‘self-realisation’ or ‘recognition’, many would consider the absence of any consideration of dignity to be a significant oversight.

Nevertheless, the book is certainly to be recommended. The Meaning and Purpose of Work is very accessible and well written. Much of the discussion is conceptual but this is always clear and illustrated with well-chosen examples, while engagement with the major literature is in no way over-bearing. The authors do not seek to tell readers what meaningful work is and as such, there is no single line of argument to follow throughout. Instead, they invite reflection on what makes work meaningful (or not), and why, both for those engaged in it and those around them – a valuable exercise which is conducted in a measured and balanced fashion. Each chapter contains questions for further consideration or reflection, which suggests that the book is meant for use in seminars. It is likely to appeal to those with interests in philosophy and questions of value in relation to work, and while not intended as an instructional or ‘how to’ book, it would lend itself to being adapted for use in courses or training on subjects such as business purpose or meaningful work. 

‘The Meaning and Purpose of Work: An Interdisciplinary Framework for Considering What Work is For’ by Christopher Wong Michaelson and Jennifer Tosti-Kharas was published in 2024 by Routledge (ISBN: 978-1-032-30933-0). 121pp.

Neil Jordan is Senior Editor at the Centre for Enterprise, Markets and Ethics. For more information about Neil please click here.

With the subtitle of this book being ‘Your Guide to Meaningful Work in a Changing World’ the reader would assume that O’Donnell’s book would provide guidance on how we can be better at our jobs and find fulfillment with the paid work that we do. This book, however, does not really achieve this end. This is not to say that this is not a good book to read, but the reader needs to understand what they will get out of this book before reading it. This is a book that can assist the reader in acknowledging and using the gifts and talents God has given us for the work we do. The work and business examples that are provided in each chapter evolved from the research that the author conducted while completing her doctoral dissertation. This book is written by a woman who provides many examples of the challenges women have when balancing life and work. Each chapter includes many stories of leaders, employees, and entrepreneurs and their experiences with their work and work environment.

The book is written with three distinct sections, each having several chapters that expound on the focus of the section, with each chapter ending with some exercises that assist with the practical application of what was written about in the chapter. The first section is called ‘Where Do You Want To Go?’ and includes 3 chapters that discuss the challenges that most people are facing in today’s world of work. (Note that the author is writing for an audience in the developed world and does not include the challenges that someone might experience in under-developed nations). O’Donnell briefly discusses the economy, the new tools and technologies that are now used in work, and the feelings and emotions experienced by workers in today’s organizations. She proposes and challenges dysfunctional beliefs about work that Christians may have and attempts to explain what God’s calling is for our lives. Even though these chapters may set the stage for our current situation they don’t really motivate the reader to read further in the book. The saving grace of this section is Chapter 2, where the author discusses the concept of ‘lean in and let go’ and where she acknowledges that God is in control of our situations. This discussion possibly sets the stage for moving on into the second section of the book where the reader learns more about how to lean in and let go.

The second section of the book is entitled ‘Who Will You Become?’ and has 4 chapters that discuss how to be entrepreneurial in your work and business. In the author’s bio, listed on the back cover of the book, she is identified as an entrepreneur and so she has an understanding of what it feels like to start a business. Throughout the chapters in this section, she uses many of her own business experiences, in addition to the answers to questions she asked entrepreneurs while completing her doctoral research, to explain many of the concepts discussed in these chapters. O’Donnell refers to several significant topics such as the importance of building relationships, understanding creativity, and developing resilience skills. In this section of the book she utilizes many scriptural references to explain how God always uses relationships in the building of His kingdom, how creative the Lord was in the creation of the world and all that is in it, and how Jesus was resilient in all that He endured. The use of some of the biblical references, however, can appear to be forced when relating these to the topics being discussed. One example of this is in Chapter 7 where the author uses the Easter story as a demonstration for building resilience; this application to work in our current situations seems a bit contrived. Since this section of the book was focused on being entrepreneurial in your work, it may appear that this book is written for people who want to start their own businesses; this may cause some readers to feel that this book would not be a guidebook for them in making their work meaningful in a changing world.

The last section of the book is entitled ‘How Will You Get There?’ and includes 4 chapters that focus on having empathy, imagination, and taking risks. This section ends by reflecting on our past and considering how we got to where we are today. In these chapters O’Donnell re-emphasizes our need to be entrepreneurial in all we do and explains good techniques for being a successful entrepreneur. Once again, though, these chapters don’t seem to fit within the main purpose of the book, which is to make any and all work meaningful in a changing world. The thoughts in these chapters could, however, assist entrepreneurs in being more effective and successful in their entrepreneurial ventures, as they deal with their failures and successes.

In conclusion, I found the book hard to read as there seemed to be no clear focus and end goal. Most chapters were well written, but the discussions did not always hang together inside the chapter or with the following chapters. The book did not successfully provide the reader with a conclusion on how to make their everyday work meaningful. The first 3 chapters probably should appear at the end of the book, as they summarize the current situation and demonstrate how all the concepts that are discussed in the following chapters provide some of the needed skills and direction on how to better manage our current work situations. Many of the chapters read like stand-alone essays (or good talks for a conference or podcast), which are good in themselves, but don’t always lead the reader to further knowledge in how to make work matter. The integration of scripture in some of the chapters and areas of focus seemed to be forced and doesn’t provide a cohesive understanding of what was really being meant by the scripture passages being used. Overall, the best chapter in the book is Chapter 6, where there is a wonderful exposition on creativity and God’s role in our ability to create. The author provides many gems in this discussion and causes the reader to truly consider our ability to be continually creative in all we do, remembering that God is the creator and we work with Him in all we create in our lives.

Due to the structure of each chapter including many anecdotes, and the fact that the majority of the references cited were not from academic books or articles, this is not an academic treatise about the integration of faith and work. This could be a good book for a Christian book study in which people in their early career stages have a desire to better understand how to integrate their faith with their work. The questions at the end of each chapter allow for good discussion and could elicit more answers as to how to make work matter, and these answers could actually create a guide-book for creating meaningful work in a changing world.

‘Make Work Matter: Your Guide to Meaningful Work in a Changing World’ by Michaela O’Donnell was published in 2021 by Baker Books (ISBN: 978-5-40-90160-6). 234 pp.

Andrea Soberg is a retired professor of human resource management from Trinity Western University in Canada. She continues to be active within the global academic and business community by researching, writing, and assisting organizations that have a focus on business as mission.

Geoffrey Jones is Isidor Strauss Professor of Business History at Harvard Business School and a fellow of the Academy of International Business. He is the author of several books in the broad field of business ethics from a historical perspective.

The author offers us a fascinating and informative historical review of what he calls “deeply responsible business”, a term which provides the framework for the book but which is, perhaps, slightly overworked. 

Jones uses the term “deep responsibility” to characterize the set of values of those “who have seen business as a way of improving society, and even solving the world’s problems” (page 4). He distinguishes his approach from both those who seek to rewrite the rules of the game, as he puts it, and also from the now somewhat discredited approaches of corporate social responsibility (although I could offer some defence of philanthropy in this regard). His central thesis “is that deeply responsible business leaders are motivated by a set of values that shape their practice” (page 5). Some might find that defining characteristic rather weak, but I welcome it, because it enables a proper discussion of values-based business approaches in a realistic way, dealing with character, integrity, wisdom and spirituality, without embracing neo-Marxist opposition to the market economy per se. Indeed, Jones specifically contests any idea that a manager in a for-profit business could never be virtuous.

 The book brings several important and significant insights.  Its most noteworthy contribution is placing the quest for responsible business into a longer historical view. Jones comprehensively demonstrates that it is not simply a recent phenomenon, but one with a long history that has exercised business leaders since industrialisation. He also helpfully places “deeply responsible business” into a global context, reminding us of the pitfalls of a simply western focus.

The book consists of ten chapters divided into three parts. The first four chapters are encompassed together under the heading “A Question of Responsibility.” Here Jones looks at some significant historical figures in business leadership and history. He covers George Cadbury, Edward Filene (the Boston businessman and pioneer of credit unions), Robert Bosch and examples from India (J.N. Tata) and Japan (Shibusawa Eiichi). This is the strongest, most insightful and interesting part of the book.

The first two chapters tell gripping stories, one of which I am very familiar with, and the other of which I knew nothing about. The first chapter deals with the story of the entrepreneurial Quaker, George Cadbury, who together with his brother, Richard, pioneered a moral approach to business. As Jones argues, given “this emphasis on trust and honesty, it is not surprising that Quaker enterprises became some of the earliest examples of socially responsible business” (page 25). Jones notes the central role of spirituality (here and elsewhere in the book in various forms), the importance of housing, welfare and flourishing of the workforce, the challenges of raising capital and the ownership structure and Cadbury’s wider commitment to the community. Virtue, wisdom and spirituality lay at the heart.

The second chapter was less familiar territory for me but I was captivated by the story. Edward Filene, born in 1860, ran the family retail business in Boston with his brother, Lincoln, and pioneered many business practices. Among his ethical approaches, he introduced employee training, paid high wages whilst seeking to keep prices low and was actively concerned with not only employee welfare, but also employee involvement. He introduced health and illness insurance and banking services for employees. Although Filene did not share their faith perspective, there are several crosscurrents here with the Quakers.

Geoffrey Jones quotes Filene that the purpose of business was to:

“serve people, not merely to support the business man concerned in it. I was not an idealist. I wanted profits. I even had a strong preference for becoming rich. Nevertheless, this discovery of what business really is did strange things to me. It made me want to serve” (page 53).

Of real interest was the story of Filene’s involvement in the development and promotion of the credit union network, which is a much more significant feature of the American financial landscape than, for example, in the UK. He was involved in the 1914 launch of the Massachusetts Credit Union and helped draft a series of eight principles of good practice (page 64). He launched the Massachusetts Credit Union Association in 1921 to promote the idea of credit unions which spread rapidly, although there was always some tension between state and federal provision. Filene was elected the first president of the Credit Union National Association in 1935, with 3,600 credit unions and 750,000 members. Those numbers had grown to 7,500 retail credit unions with 92 million members by 2010.

Part 2, “Turbulence” begins with a fascinating chapter on the history of Harvard Business School and its second dean, Wallace Donham, who had called in 1927 for business leaders to adopt what he called a higher level of responsibility (a further and helpful reminder of placing these ideas in historical context). Further chapters deal with the desire to reduce wealth disparities as an aim of business leaders, consumerism and some other matters. In these chapters the book slightly loses its way. They are the least convincing part of the book and certainly, on occasion, fall into virtue-signalling around business leaders’ personal political objectives and detracted from the really significant insights of the book. In particular, chapter 9, entitled “Social Three-Folding”, seems quite disconnected.

In Part 3, Geoffrey Jones brings us back to more contemporary debates with three chapters dealing with the rise of value driven business right through to the issues around ESG (“environmental, social and governance”) and B Corps. He provides a balanced overview of the strengths and challenges of these movements. He is particularly helpful with his supportive critique of B Corps – though there was no mention of the UK’s B Corp movement, which has made some advances. 

In his conclusion Jones reminds us of the reason why his book makes a good and useful contribution:

“As we delved into the history of deep responsibility, we saw many examples of business leaders across time and space who combined making profits and pursuing positive social impact” (page 342).

Jones argues that deeply responsible business will select an industry which does no harm (though that might be easier to define in some instances than others), will engage with stakeholders with respect and humility and support communities. He notes that affecting “a single city might be less glamorous than “reimagining capitalism”, but it can greatly enhance the lives of generations of people” (page 345).

Jones should be congratulated for recognising that a values-based approach to business has a long and honourable history but is not a panacea and that there are weaknesses as well as strengths. In this he is a realist and enhances his overall arguments. He recognises the values which shape character, virtue and spirituality and the need to convince the mainstream of business rather than simply movements on the margin. This is a good book, which I recommend, albeit slightly disappointed with the middle chapters.

“Deeply Responsible Business,” by Geoffrey Jones was published in 2023 by Harvard University Press (ISBN: 978-0-674-91653-1). 431pp.

Dr Richard Turnbull is the Director of the Centre for Enterprise, Markets & Ethics (CEME). For more information about Richard please click here.

Much of The Biblical Entrepreneur’s Experience comprises a rather simplistic and selective use of scripture to support a particular world-view, namely a North American free market system. As such, it could almost be categorised as espousing a prosperity gospel, in which correctly following biblical methods will necessarily bring success in business (see Chapter 2 for Davis’s “system”). The examples given in the book, of entrepreneurs such as Sarah Breedlove (Madam C.J. Walker), Strive Masiyiwa and Scott Harrison, tell this story in an often engaging way, but at times verge on a parody, which attempts to represent the complex riches of the Christian faith in an unreflective manner. One example is the song “The Hairdresser’s Ode to Madam C.J. Walker”, to the tune of “Onward, Christian Soldiers”, which the author cites approvingly (pages 72-73). The ‘mission’ of beautifying hair is conflated completely with the great Christian Commission in a manner that I found both disturbing and shallow.

Davis’s central metaphor, akin to a sermon illustration, is that of ‘bees and fleas’, and the author uses the bee/flea imagery to invite the reader into his world-view. BEEs (Biblical Experiential Entrepreneur) are good, and FLEAs (in-Flexible Learnt Entrepreneurial Antagonist) are bad. At the heart of Davis’s analysis is the proposition that “A BEE creates; a FLEA takes” (page 22). The book is peppered with “fun facts”, such as, “The honeybee has a heart!” (page 143), and side-bar notes, for example, “Strive – to devote serious effort or energy; to struggle in opposition” (page 115). Taken together, the above makes the overarching style of the book quite propositional and un-nuanced.

However, at times the book is also informative and every now and again I was pleased to find an interesting comment or statement that, I felt, contributed in a thoughtful way to a theological consideration of the subjects of enterprise and of entrepreneurial behaviour. For example, on the theme of entrepreneurial endeavour, Davis suggests: “It is to prepare the entrepreneur for the next life: a venture more fulfilling than its worldly counterparts” (page 5). This statement sketches out an idea which could be developed into some deep vocational thinking on the kingdom of heaven, and the place for enterprise within God’s enduring purposes. In another intriguing statement Davis comments: ‘…through grace we are given a great opportunity to provide others with a needed product or service to glorify Him – not ourselves” (page 11). Here, the themes of God’s grace, human need (not desire), and divine glory are all connected together under the umbrella of enterprise.

In Chapter 6 biblical examples are used to support the practice of “active listening”, as a way of harnessing God’s messages imparted through others, and Davis interestingly adds some thoughts about the challenges of fear and pride (pages 46-47). This “active listening” to others is to be set alongside the need for regular meditation on scripture (Chapter 15), not mere uncritical proof-texting, which appears elsewhere in the book. Separately, Chapter 10 plays with the “beehive” imagery and the way hexagons fit together perfectly, an illustration of how a project should work, a line of discussion that concludes with this communitarian statement: “…an individual cannot save the world; however a swarm of BEEs in each city can rebuild areas, then blocks of areas, followed quickly throughout a city. Multiple cities make up a country. Multiple countries make up a region. Multiple regions make up the world” (page 104).

A different book might have taken some of these statements and developed them by placing them alongside (and sometimes in tension with) the thinking set out by other authors who have considered the place for enterprise within the Christian world-view. The reader is left to do this work for themself. For example, the rich and in my mind helpful concept of the vocation of the entrepreneur, as proposed by Davis, could have been explored within a more general discussion on vocational calling, and specifically the nature of work within God’s providence.

In a way, the most inspiring section of this book for me was Section 6 (Chapters 16, 17 and 18), which describes empirical research about the distinctiveness of Christian-led and Christian-inspired businesses. Such enterprises typically have greater productivity, staff loyalty, and general outperformance. In this regard, I found the story of Walker Mowers engaging, not least the way in which the owners and directors of this business deliberately attempt to tell the story of the company within the bigger context of the story of salvation history (page 155). An enterprise is thus no longer a means to an end (profit), but is part of an over-arching narrative that embraces God’s purposes. This theme alone could have been developed into a major piece of thinking that I believe would be incredibly timely and helpful for business in today’s world.

In sum, this is a “popular” rather than “scholarly” book. It is, in the main, an easy read with occasional thought-provoking nuggets. With rather less “prosperity gospel” and rather more theological reflection on the important themes that are hinted at, it would have been much improved upon.

“The Biblical Entrepreneur’s Experience” by S Leigh Davis was published in 2021 by River Birch Press (ISBN-13: 9781951561802).  260pp.

Edward Carter is Vicar of St Peter Mancroft Church in Norwich, having previously been the Canon Theologian at Chelmsford Cathedral, a parish priest in Oxfordshire, a Minor Canon at St George’s Windsor and a curate in Norwich. Prior to ordination he worked for small companies and ran his own business.

He chairs the Church Investors Group, an ecumenical body that represents over £10bn of church money, and which engages with a wide range of publicly listed companies on ethical issues. His research interests include the theology of enterprise and of competition, and his hobbies include board-games, volleyball and film-making. He is married to Sarah and they have two adult sons.

Charles Boix is Professor of Politics and Public Affairs at Princeton University. His primary research interests are in political economy and comparative politics, with a particular emphasis on empirical democratic theory. Previous notable publications include Political Parties, Growth and Equality (Cambridge University Press, 1998), Democracy and Redistribution (Cambridge University Press, 2003), and Political Order and Inequality (Cambridge University Press, 2015).

In Democratic Capitalism at a Crossroads Charles Boix seeks to explore both the historical chapters of democratic free-market tensions and current issues facing capitalism within western democracies. The author divides the narrative into three main eras: 19^th century Manchester capitalism, 20^th century Detroit capitalism, and the current 21^st century Silicon Valley-based model of capitalism. The final chapters consider the implications of these forms of capitalism on the future workforce, in particular with respect to automation, the rate of technological change, income distribution and politics (or the role of government more broadly).

Charles Boix’s thesis is that, “the consequences of today’s technological changes […] are not set in stone. They will work their way into the economy through their direct (although, at this point, still uncertain) impact on the demand for different types of labour and on the cost and ownership of capital.  Yet they will also depend on the institutional and political strategies we follow in response to those technological transformations” (page 3).

The book is well-written and comprehensively researched. The author does a commendable job of avoiding the clichés that often surround the topic of technology and maintains both nuance and a satisfactory degree of objectivity. We will touch upon some of the more intriguing points made throughout the book.

Chapters 1-3 explore the impact of technology on society and politics from a historical perspective. Chapter 2 dedicates a fair amount of attention (and rightly so), to the first industrial revolution. Boix points out that automatization brought by a new class of comparatively poorly skilled labour that replaced “…an old class of artisans and highly skilled operators” (page 57). In 20^th Century capitalism however, the advent of technology (and automisation more specifically), led to a further replacement of low skilled workers with semi-skilled workers – albeit in much lower numbers. This new workforce of semi-skilled labour was needed to oversee, maintain, and repair the machinery in operation. Yet perhaps the most important consequence of the process of automisation was the arrival of “… new layers of white-collar, relatively well-paid jobs – from accounting departments to car dealerships” (page 59).

This in effect resulted in a new form of Corporatism whereby the relationship between employees, trade unions and the employers are far more interwoven than before. An interesting point is made in chapter 3 whereby the continual development of a company’s human capital became a vested interest for the company itself. Henry Ford for instance invested heavily in the education of his workforce. He established the Ford English School to teach English to recently arrived immigrants and he even established a “…Sociological Department, with about two hundred employees, to ensure that the family lives and overall behaviour of his factory workers did not deviate from a clear set of norms such as thriftiness, continence, and basic hygiene” (page 78).

Chapters 4-6 move the conversation to the contemporary debate around technology, artificial intelligence (AI), and its impact on the labour markets and consequently, on democracy itself. Charles Boix rightly points out the difference between simple AI and machine learning. The key form of impact here is that while computers/AI displaced routinable jobs at a large scale, they have “…hardly replaced nonroutine jobs” (page 103). Though this may be changing with machine learning.

Boix acknowledges in Chapter 6 that, ultimately, we cannot predict the impact of technological change or indeed “…depict the society it will give birth to…” (page 180). Therefore, any future policy responses must be made in a piecemeal fashion (ibid.). The chapter concludes the book with a few tentative proposals for reform. Rather unexpectedly, Universal Basic Income (UBI) is presented as one such proposal – yet the arguments made against UBI seem more convincing than those in favour. For instance, the author claims that UBI has two main advantages: “First, it may free individuals from routine, repetitive tasks, allowing them to engage in more creative and inventive professional paths. Second, it should reduce poverty and arguably, equalise conditions” (page 206). Perhaps the keywords here are ‘may’ and ‘should’ – one cannot help but feel that this is mere wishful thinking.

On the challenges of UBI, Boix acknowledges a rather lengthy list: UBI cannot be tailored to individual needs, it distorts the incentives that people have to work, it may keep the pre-existing structure of inequality in place, it reduces the need for schooling, it enables firms to offer lower wages, it affects the inner motivations and ambitions of youngsters, it can create antagonism between those that are earning against those that are not (pages 207-208). We don’t have space to go into further detail here, and surely each reader will make up their own mind – but it is a strange and slightly disappointing end to an otherwise interesting book.

In summary, Democratic Capitalism at a Crossroads is an engaging read about the impact of technological change on the transformation of labour markets, society and indeed, democratic systems themselves. It is accessible to the educated reader and while some might take issue with certain sections of the book, the author does a laudable job of curtailing his more subjective opinions by also presenting the counterarguments. One result is that some readers may find the counterarguments more compelling than the main arguments themselves (UBI is a case in point). This might not necessarily be a bad thing. The book is a recommended read to those looking to expand their knowledge of the intersection between technology, the economy, and democracy.

“Democratic Capitalism at the Crossroads” by Carles Boix was first published in 2021 by Princeton University Press, ISBN: 9780691216898, 272pp.

Andrei E. Rogobete is the Associate Director of  the Centre for Enterprise, Markets & Ethics. For more information about Andrei please click here.

Management as a Calling is aimed primarily at business students but it has far wider relevance.  Andrew Hoffman says that he wants “to personally challenge every business student, every business executive, and every business school professor to think about the system in which students are beginning their careers and to push back when it is steering them away from their calling” (page 18).

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Hoffman is the Professor of Sustainable Enterprise at the University of Michigan Ross School of Business. His basic thesis is simple: there is a crisis in capitalism of which the symptoms are income inequality and climate change; governments have a role to play in providing solutions to the relevant issues but the leading role has to be played by business since “if there are no solutions coming from business, there will be no solutions” (page 4); treating the sustainability challenges as mainstream business issues and fitting them into the market as it exists will not provide solutions; what is needed is not incremental change but a radical change of values and culture involving future business leaders being taught “to consider management as a calling – one that moves away from the simple pursuit of a career for private personal gain and toward a vocation that is based on a higher and more internally derived set of values about leading commerce and serving society” (page 5); and this requires that we should be turning “to religion and philosophy as a way to augment the market in making this shift” (page 116).

At times, the book loses its business focus and cannot seem to decide whether it is about business management or about the best way to build a political and societal consensus that permits the tackling of climate change. Nonetheless, Hoffman pursues his theme with evangelistic fervour, concluding with an alter call: “You, the next generation of business leaders, have been born into this reality, and you have no choice but to respond. You did not choose this reality but you must embrace it. The nobility of your lives will be determined by how you respond to the challenges you face” (page 138). This is an inspiring message but as a rule evangelists have weaknesses as well as strengths and Hoffman is no exception to the rule.

On the negative side, some of his attacks target Aunt Sallies. For example, he points to the growth in the Stock Market in recent years as evidence that share values are divorced from underlying economic reality and he dismisses Gross Domestic Product growth as a measure of wellbeing or even a reliable measure of economic success, but few would dispute these things and they do not assist in proving his case. On occasions he is also guilty of overstatement or misrepresentation. For example, his linking of the Wells Fargo, Volkswagen and Sackler scandals with Adam Smith’s “invisible hand” does grave injustice to the sophistication of Smith’s economics, let alone his moral philosophy. Conversely, when advocating change, Hoffman is on occasions guilty of dubious logic (the most egregious example of which is his twice stated assertion that “Our problems are manmade – therefore, they can be solved by man”, page 118). Furthermore, his discussion of issues relating to inequality is very brief and superficial. Indeed, no issue is covered in great detail, the book being only 138 pages long.

Hoffman’s vision of the future is both vague and, by his own admission, Utopian. He asserts that “perpetual growth is not possible and its continued pursuit is self destructive”, quoting with approval Naomi Klein’s statement that we have to “come face to face with the hard truth that the conveniences of modern consumer capitalism [are] steadily eroding the habitability of the planet” (page 33): he calls on us to be radical and attacks those who believe that the solution lies in technology, such as electric cars. However, his positive suggestions sound surprising incremental rather than revolutionary. They even include the use of electric cars and, despite quoting Naomi Klein’s challenge, he never discusses in detail what we have to give to up to deal with the problem that he perceives and how our living standards will change in consequence of this.

Having said that, there is much that is commendable and thought provoking in the book. Hoffman does not pretend that he has all the answers, recognises the fact that we do not currently have the infrastructure to be ecologically neutral and criticizes over simplistic debate; he notes that “social media outrage” increasingly drives social discourse and laments that the resulting behaviours and emotional perspectives “are not conducive to the kind of tempered, thorough, and compromise seeking discourse that democratic government needs in order to function well” (page 61); he recognises that part of the reason why the public ignores scientists is because there are some within the scientific community who hold the public in low regard and others “who subscribe to a view of scientism that elevates the natural scientists in relation to all other ways of knowing the world around us” (page 75); he is also cautious about the role of so-called “activist CEOs” and recognises the danger that theoretical accountability to everyone in practice means accountability no-one (i.e. the danger that the effect of weakening accountability to shareholders will be precisely the reverse of the effect that its proponents desire); and, most importantly, he calls for business thinking to encompass more than growing the bottom line without regard to the means or consequences of doing so.

Hoffman’s aim is not to set out a road map to Utopia or to some less desirable but at least sustainable future. Instead, he wants to add new dimensions to the business debate, change mindsets and provoke productive discussion, starting in the business schools. He aims, in this way, to generate new business models that “begin to coalesce around a composite model that brings the full scope of market transformation into greater clarity” (page 39).

Readers of Management as a Calling may well disagree with a number of Hoffman’s assertions, particularly one or two of the more left-leaning of these but few will doubt the need for business discourse to encompass fundamental values as well as ethics in a narrower sense. Unlike Socialism, Capitalism does not, or at least should not, claim to be an all embracing philosophical, social and economic system.  It needs to be supplemented by well thought through values. Despite its failings, Management as a Calling is a valuable reassertion of this point and an important call to both existing and future business leaders to think more broadly about what they are seeking to achieve. It is well worth reading.

“Management as a Calling – Leading Business Serving Society” by Andrew J. Hoffman, was published in 2021 by Stanford University Press (ISBN – 13:9781503614802). 138pp.

Richard Godden is a Lawyer and has been a Partner with Linklaters for over 25 years during which time he has advised on a wide range of transactions and issues in various parts of the world. 

Richard’s experience includes his time as Secretary at the UK Takeover Panel and a secondment to Linklaters’ Hong Kong office. He also served as Global Head of Client Sectors, responsible for Linklaters’ industry sector groups, and was a member of the Global Executive Committee.

This book is a collection of eighteen separate but thematically connected papers which were given at an international academic conference in Belgium in May 2018. The organising principle is an enquiry as to whether the ‘will to serve’ must always be ‘crowded out in the real economic arena of hard competition’ (page vi). The authors are very diverse, with global perspectives offered, although there is an inevitable impression at certain moments that one is eavesdropping on a room full of academics talking to one another and there is some repetition, notably when it comes to the description of what ‘servant leadership’ might be.

I found some of the papers stronger than others but I enjoyed reading all of them, and was left with ideas and questions about re-discovering a wider view of how businesses and companies operate within society. Originally the granting of ‘limited liability’ was seen as a privilege that brought responsibilities towards the community. Those responsibilities have at times been largely overlooked in the single-minded search for profit, which in turn has shaped the kind of leadership the corporate sector has embraced and this volume is a helpful contribution to a growing literature that urges a wider view of what makes for good leadership (whether described using ‘servant’ language or not), as well as a broader view of the very purpose of business and enterprise itself.

It is difficult to summarise such a diverse set of essays, and even the over-arching theme of servant leadership seemed not to be dominant. There are three sections: (1) Philosophical and Spiritual Foundations; (2) Social Entrepreneurship: Serving the Common Good; (3) Servant Leadership in the Context of Business. The general movement through the collection is from concepts to practice, although there is plenty of overlap.

Section 1 (Philosophical and Spiritual Foundations)

I found the most thought provoking of the seven essays in Section 1 to be Ipseistic Ethics Beyond Moralism: Rooting the “Will to Serve” in “The Reverence for Life” by Chris Doude van Troostwijk and The Dark Side of Servant Leadership: Power Abuse via Serving by Volker Kessler. 

Despite its title, the former is very readable. It uses Albert Schweitzer’s life-story as a vehicle for the author’s argument, which is an attempt to answer this question: ‘Is there a way that respects both the self-centered impetus of human life and the altruistic needs of life in general?’ (page 82) I was especially intrigued by the author’s appropriation of Darwin’s ‘survival of the fittest’ theme so as to re-evaluate ‘fit’ as a social idea – the cooperation needed for someone to be a ‘good fit’ within an organisation.

Volker Kessler’s paper contrasts strongly with the others, in that the author (a practitioner with his wife Martina) draws upon a data-base of stories to describe eight mechanisms of power abuse in Christian organisations. The main issues are those of inappropriate obligations and commitments, and a culture of dependency masked as being reciprocity. This sentence stood out for me: ‘Many of the misuses listed… could be avoided if leaders would not call themselves servants.’ (page 119) Every Christian leader would benefit from reading and reflecting on this article.

Several of the other essays are also interesting. Two take a Christian perspective: Patrick Nullens’ paper (The Will to Serve: An Anthropological and Spiritual Foundation for Leadership) looks at the moral aspects of servant leadership, and makes theological links to Christian love and Christ the servant/slave. Nullens raises human fallenness, and therefore the need also for justice – a wider concept linked to the common good; and Heiko Wenzel’s essay (Reading Exodus 18 and Robert Greenleaf) refers to Exodus 18 (Moses’ leadership) as a way of exploring the differences between hierarchical leadership and a ‘first among equals’ model. Issues of organisational culture and participation, and how they are shaped, are considered. In contrast, in Simone Weil and a Critical Will to Serve Michael J. Thate draws on Simone Weil’s thought, in which the theme of ‘creative attention’ is prominent – this being attention towards the world, and a kind of ethical awareness that avoids rigidity.

The other two essays in Section 1 are disappointing. First, Servant Leadership Beyond Servant and Leader: A Buddhist Perspective on the Theory and Practice of Servant Leadership by Ernest C. H. Ng sketches out a model called ‘Interdependent Leadership’. This suggests that changes can be delivered only when confronting thoughts are transcended and any place for opposites or ‘contest’ is removed, but I struggled with understanding how this analysis might become a practical tool.  Secondly, Christianity and Servant Leadership by Peirong Lin among other things considers the concept of the ‘leadership moment’ (page 124), and the need to hold leader, follower, purpose and context together. I liked the phrase, ‘Normal things have parable character’ (page 135), borrowed from Dutch priest and professor Tjeu van Knippenberg, but overall this article felt fairly general to me.

Section 2 (Social Entrepreneurship: Serving the Common Good)

All six essays in Section 2 provoke thought, especially for Christians. The section opens with Emilio Di Somma pushing back against the Milton Friedman version of economics, and seeking to find a place for power-relations, politics, and human dignity within the discussion (Protecting the Weak and Creating Community). Serving is therefore mainly characterised as relinquishing power, and the example of Adriano Olivetti as an exemplary and socially responsible entrepreneur is used. I found myself arriving at the interesting conclusion that ‘making things well’ might be more important than making a profit, although the two are of course not mutually exclusive.

Foundations for Social Entrepreneurship: An Integrative Indian Perspective by Sharda S. Nandram, Puneet K. Bindlish, Harsh Purohit, Ankur Joshi, & Priti Hingorani explores the idea that entrepreneurs might be drawn towards social entrepreneurial activities because of themes lying within Indian philosophy. There is some methodology and interpretation, although I was left wanting more of this. The most interesting concept is that of the ‘public domain’, and why some entrepreneurs seem willing to gift their ideas and creativity to the world, for example Tim Berners-Lee and the world wide web.

Workplace Spirituality in Social Entrepreneurship: Motivation for Serving in the Common Good by Natasha Gjorevska describes ‘spiritual entrepreneurs’ as a category, and explores a complementary relationship between the concepts of social enterprise and workplace spiritual leadership. ‘Spiritual’ here is not necessarily ‘religious’, but embraces themes such as ‘meaningful work’, ‘purpose’, and a ‘sense of community’. However, there are plenty of resonances with Christian thinking about vocation, and the common good.

Mindful Servant Leadership for B-Corps by Kevin Jackson provides some helpful (for me) background information about B-Corps, which are essentially public benefit companies that also exhibit non-instrumental motivations: ‘…ethics for their own sake…’ (p.213). The other main strand within this paper concerns ‘mindfulness’, which keeps a leader’s view wide, and therefore overlaps with the bigger societal purposes of a B-Corp. I translated this for myself into a Christian understanding of prayerfulness, and the big-picture view of creation, and new creation in Christ. With a bit of interpretation this article would be of interest to Christian business leaders and entrepreneurs as they look to the wider purposes of their organisation.

In The Religious Leader as Social Entrepreneur, Jack Barentsen begins by raising the concern that an apparently ‘servant’ religious leader might only or mainly be motivated by the need to proselytise. However, the argument is put that this is usually not the case, and that a broader view of the common good is in mind. One specific example is peacebuilding. Barentsen notes the well-known fact that people of faith are much more likely to volunteer (‘serve’), and therefore contribute to social capital, and he has a useful section, albeit descriptive rather than analytical, on religious leaders as entrepreneurs. I liked his final question asking, are religious leaders helped and trained to be social entrepreneurs, or common-good-builders. My sense is that in the church I belong to the answer is, ‘No’.

Serving the Poor: The Case of the EoC Enterprise ‘Mercurio Net’ by Mara Del Baldo & Maria-Gabriella Baldarelli is very different from the other essays. EoC stands for ‘Economy of Communion’, which is a network of companies initiated in Brazil in 1991 by Chiara Lubich, and which connects to the Roman Catholic Focolare Movement. Lubich’s vision was based on reducing poverty and the need for a broad understanding of happiness and ‘human flowering’. (page 256) She wanted to see a new generation of companies producing wealth on behalf of those in poverty by providing good work. The authors tell us that there are now almost 1,000 EoC firms around the world. I knew none of this, and was grateful to learn, as well as being reminded that the place for servant leadership is critical when it comes to an attentiveness to the poor.

Section 3 (Servant Leadership in the Context of Business)

The third section of the book begins with Jakob Willem (Pim) Boven’s observation (with which I agree) that a theory of leadership (entrepreneurship) is very under-represented in the standard neo-classical economic theories (Servant Leadership in Market-Oriented Organizations, Does that Make Sense? An Evaluation from an Economic-Organization Theory Perspective). The author therefore suggests that we need to take seriously the institutional reality of the company, and he points us to the growing body of research into Organizational Economics. His main point is that there are resonances between Organizational Economics and the theme of ‘Servant Leadership’.

The next two essays in this final section seek to learn from specific situations. The first, The Importance of Calling in Realization of Life Projects: The Case of Maverick and Serial-entrepreneur Hans Nielsen Hauge with Implications for Business Education by Knut Ims, Truls Liland, & Magne Supphellen is the more analytical.  It is essentially a very interesting case study of Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771-1824), who was an influential entrepreneur in Norway – a preacher and businessman whose impact is still felt today. I did not know his story before reading this article, and found it inspiring. Of note for me was the feudal context out of which Hauge sprang, and which he implicitly challenged, as was the link between the spiritual experience of his ‘call’ (described on page 313) and his practical entrepreneurship. The authors point to these key ingredients in Hauge’s life: self-determination (an intrinsic motivation); meaning; persistence. These combine to give prominence to a holistic view of life, rather than life as a series of attempts to optimise choices. This rallying cry towards the end of the paper seemed powerful and important to me: ‘We need a type of business education and business training, which assists students in defining life goals and life projects.’ (page 325).

Rethinking Fashion Retail: The Case of MrSale by Gabor Kovacs takes the form of a qualitative mini research project focused on a small private company called MrSale, which was founded in Budapest in 2000. Kovacs is seeking evidence about the source of genuine ethical commitment in business. The answer is to do with the motivations of serving society and contributing to social well-being, with a link to meditation and Buddhism. The often-observed benefits of an ethically run business are, in this case, seen to be those of satisfied employees, increased innovation, higher levels of trust with suppliers, growth, and ultimately profits. Case studies are always engaging, but I was hoping for more critical comment and interpretation.

The final two essays consider the thinking of two very different people: Aldous Huxley, who was famously the author of Brave New World in 1932, which took a pessimistic view of the rise of science and a mechanised economy; and John Wesley the prophetic teacher and preacher, who created a large-scale business and who had links to the world of commerce and trade.

In Aldous Huxley’s Anarchist Entrepreneurship Based on Spiritual Capital, Gerrit De Vylder plays Huxley’s fiction off against the theme of servant leadership – a creative endeavour which yields surprisingly rich results. The idea which most caught my eye was the value ascribed to localism and the link to the ‘small is beautiful’ economics of E.F. Schumacher. This paper, and indeed the entire book, pre-dates the covid-19 pandemic, but I wondered if the new post-pandemic desire to build more resilient supply chains and to reduce dependence on global trade routes might have added to the discussion.

In the final chapter of the collection (John Wesley: Prophet and Entrepreneur), Clive Murray Norris gives a concise description of John Wesley’s ministry and observes that Wesley’s prophetic voice had a dual focus: personal spiritual renewal, and the need to address the problems and injustices faced by society. This in turn meant that Wesley avoided the trap of a ‘prosperity gospel’, and instead demonstrated a strong sense of stewardship and the fruitfulness of good works in a broad, societal sense. My knowledge of John Wesley’s activities was improved by reading this paper, and the conclusion, with four points for reflection aimed at today’s social entrepreneurs, made for a fine ending to the entire book. Summarised, these are: (i) the need for a holistic view of humanity’s spiritual and physical needs; (ii) the desirability of borrowing ideas from others, accepting that not every idea will work, and focusing on practical action; (iii) the importance of having friends and partners across the community, both rich and poor; and (iv) the imperative that all share a common purpose, that all are welcome, that anything is possible, and that action must start now.

“Servant Leadership, Social Entrepreneurship and the Will to Serve – Spiritual Foundations and Business Applications”, edited by Luk Bouckaert and Steven C. van den Heuvel, was published in 2019 by Palgrave Macmillan (ISBN-13: 9783030299385). 394pp.

Edward Carter is Vicar of St Peter Mancroft Church in Norwich, having previously been the Canon Theologian at Chelmsford Cathedral, a parish priest in Oxfordshire, a Minor Canon at St George’s Windsor and a curate in Norwich. Prior to ordination he worked for small companies and ran his own business.

He chairs the Church Investors Group, an ecumenical body that represents over £10bn of church money, and which engages with a wide range of publicly listed companies on ethical issues. His research interests include the theology of enterprise and of competition, and his hobbies include board-games, volleyball and film-making. He is married to Sarah and they have two adult sons.

“The Gospel at Work” by Sebastian Traeger & Greg Gilbert is a relatively recent addition (published 2018) to the cohort of literature that aims to focus on faith within the workplace. This is a topic that likely stirs interest from secular and religious audiences alike. What role does a person’s faith have at work? How should work be understood by Christians? How can we develop a biblical understanding of work? These are just a few of the main questions addressed in the book.

The authors bring together relevant and varied knowledge on the issue. Sebastian Traeger is a former technology entrepreneur and current Vice President of the International Mission Board for the Southern Baptist Convention. Greg Gilbert is the author of several books and currently serves as the senior pastor of Third Avenue Baptist Church in Louisville, Kentucky.

The central message or ‘thesis’ of the book is that, regardless of your job, you are ultimately working it for God, “Who you work for is more important than what you do” (page 17). This is, as the book points out, contrary to what “the world” considers successful and important.

The premise is based on the words of the apostle Paul in Ephesians 6:7 where he calls to ^“Serve wholeheartedly, as if you were serving the Lord, not people”. Yet the focus is not just on the action itself, but also the attitude of heart. In Colossians 3:22 Paul calls people to work with “…sincerity of heart and reverence for the Lord” (page 16).

“The Gospel at Work” is devised into eleven main chapters and here we will touch upon some of the main points that arise.

Chapters I and II start with a dichotomy that sets the tone for the rest of the book: “The Idolatry of Work” versus “Idleness in Work” (pages 13 & 23). Traeger and Gilbert capture well the two extremes that many Christians risk falling into: making work their idol on one end, or rejecting it as anathema to God’s purpose for their lives on the other end.

There is nothing wrong with ambition or determination in our careers. However, the authors rightly point out that “trouble starts when our pursuit of enjoyment or influence or status in our work begins to make our work the source of ultimate satisfaction or meaning for us” (page 25).

Equally damaging on the other end of the spectrum is ‘idleness’ at work. Idleness here does not necessarily mean to be idle per se (while others provide for you), but rather a more subtle expression “that has less to do with productivity of our hands and everything to do with the motives and desires of our hearts” (page 35).

Chapters III to V take the discussion further and develop guidance on issues such as the gospel in work, God’s purpose for us, and choosing a job or career path. An interesting point is made on the correct order of priorities when making career choices expressed in the form of a pyramid. God sits at the foundation, serving others is in the middle, and loving the ‘self’ is the tip of the pyramid coming third (page 75). The book recognises that in reality, these priorities are often reversed: the self comes first, pleasing others is second, and serving God is third (page 79). The authors propose that as a remedy Christians must keep the right perspective: work is temporary, God is eternal (page 81).

Chapters VI to VIII continue with practical applications such as balancing work with faith and family, managing work relationships, and what it means to be a ‘Christian boss’. A useful discussion can be found on the nature of competitiveness in the workplace where the authors (rightly) argue that, “It’s not competition the Bible forbids, but rather the world’s playbook for competition. […] Win by running faster not by tripping all your competitors” (page 106).

The final chapters IX to XI take a more outward look and consider topics such as sharing the gospel in a secular space, the value of full-time ministry, calling, and defining success. On the latter the book makes the point in not defining ‘success’ by what the world considers ‘success’ but rather in the ability to one day stand before Jesus and say “Lord, where you deployed me, I served well. I gave it my all. I worked at it with all my heart because I was working for you, not for human masters” (page 158).

In concluding, “The Gospel at Work” is an excellent resource for anyone interested in the topic of faith within the workplace. It combines practice and theory well, using clear examples and principles that are backed by scripture. One point of contention could be that the authors write with great certainty. On one level this is perhaps not bad thing but on another it does, at times, make the book read like a ‘self-help’ piece of literature – one that was made to hit bestselling charts. Problem A is solved by doing X, Y, Z. I am sure, however, that this was not the author’s intent.

It is perhaps more of an observation than a direct critique. Yet one cannot help but feel that God’s “…ways are above [our] ways…” (Isaiah 55:9). There is an element of God’s mystery in life that often cannot be solved by simply following a clear set of instructions (good and correct though they may be). This perhaps an aspect that could have been developed more in the book. Nonetheless, it is a recommended read for anyone with an interest in the subject.

“The Gospel at Work” by Sebastian Traeger & Greg Gilbert was published in 2018 by Zondervan, 160pp.

Andrei E. Rogobete is the Associate Director of  the Centre for Enterprise, Markets & Ethics. For more information about Andrei please click here.